Borage
Borage leaves and flowers contain pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs), which are hepatotoxic and EFSA considers potentially carcinogenic at high chronic exposures. EFSA flagged borage as one of the highest-PA plants (up to 3,410 µg/kg).
What it is
Borago officinalis, an annual herb whose leaves, flowers, and seed oil are used culinarily and as supplements.
Used as a leafy herb, flavoring, edible flower, and source of seed oil rich in gamma-linolenic acid (GLA).
Why it's flagged
- Borage seed oil (GLA supplement) is the dominant US food use and is safe. Leaf form (pyrrolizidine alkaloid risk) is not commonly used in food.
- pyrrolizidine alkaloids
- liver toxicity
- potential carcinogenicity
What regulators actually say
"Exposure to pyrrolizidine alkaloids in food, in particular for frequent and high consumers of tea and herbal infusions, is a possible long-term concern for human health due to their potential carcinogenicity."
Regulatory status
United States — FDA
FDA has issued warning letters to borage seed oil supplements containing PAs above acceptable levels; not approved for food fortification
European Union — EFSA
EFSA identified borage as a high-PA plant; PA limits set by Commission Regulation (EU) 2023/915
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